Miners dig to record depths to find more gold
1 Jun 07
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This favourable environment has prompted Gold Fields to start work on a R4,7-billion project to deepen both its Kloof and Driefontein mines, near Carletonville, to 4 020 m and 4 121 m below surface, respectively, providing access to 10,8-million ounces of gold.
Shaft sinking at Driefontein is expected to be completed by 2011, which will make it the world’s deepest mine, with the silver medal going to Kloof once it is fully developed.
AngloGold Ashanti is continuing with its R1,2-billion Below 120 Carbon Leader project, which will take its TauTona mine, also in Carletonville, to 3 902 m.
This will yield 2,6-million ounces of gold over a nine-year period ending 2017.
“By July 15, 2008, we should be able to celebrate the unveiling of a new Guinness Book of Records plaque at a depth of 3 778 m below datum,” TauTona GM Frank Russo Bello told Mining Weekly last year.
This plaque will bear the words “The deepest man-made hole in the world”.
Currently, the accolade for the world’s deepest mine belongs to AngloGold Ashanti’s Savuka operation, in the North West province, which decends to 3 777 m.
This mine was due to close in the first quarter of last year, but will now remain operational as long as it is profitable to do so, says AngloGold Ashanti executive director Neville Nicolau.
Positive economics have also opened the doors for the R2-billion deepening of the Mponeng mine, again near Carletonville, to below 3 600 m, extending the life-of-mine by a further eight years.
Harmony is also deepening its Elandsrand mine, in Gauteng and the North West province, which is set to go below 3 300 m, opening up an additional 6,22-million ounces. This project is scheduled to be completed by 2010.
Mining deeper and deeper does not come cheaply, though.
At Driefontein, apart from the capital costs to get there, mining at depth will cost R66 000/kg over the life of the mine – not bad when considering the current gold price of about R160 000/kg.
Indeed then, there is money to be made, should all the fundamentals remain positive, but nobody says it’s going to be easy.
A costly affair
Mines are large consumers.
Gold Fields CEO Ian Cockerill says the power consumption of a mine such as Driefontein equals that of Eastern Cape city East London. The mine has an installed capacity of 800 MW.
“We pay R250-million a quarter in electricity bills. It makes up 12% of our costs.”
The reason for this is that an underground mine must be ventilated and cooled, and increasingly so as it goes deeper.
At Driefontein, at 4 000 m, the rock temper-ature will reach 55 730C as one inches closer to the earth’s molten core, explains Gold Fields head of South African operations Terence Goodlace.
“We have to take cognisance of the fact that it continues to grow hotter as we go deeper.”
The solution to this is improved cooling technologies, with the use of ice rather than water to cool underground working conditions, he adds.
Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) mining technology senior scientist Schu Schutte says the cut-off point where workers can function optimally underground is about 28 730C wet bulb.
Wet bulb temperature provides an indication of ambient humidity, which often reaches high levels in mines.
At temperatures higher than 28 730C wet bulb, two things happen, notes Schutte.
The ability of mine workers to concentrate and to make accurate spatial perceptions decreases.
In other words, the possibility of making a fatal mistake increases.
Individuals also work even faster than before, and with decimated accuracy.
It is, therefore, not surprising that an analysis of the effect of heat in gold mines, conducted between 1987 and 1994, indicates a notable increase in the injury rate when temperatures reach 29 0C wet bulb and upwards.
Physically speaking, it is possible to continue working until the temperature reaches 32,5 OC, although this is not desirable, says Schutte.
“Formal heat-stress management programmes and administrative control measures are required where wet bulb temperature reaches 28 OC, while routine work should not be permitted where wet bulb temperature exceeds 32,5 0C, or the dry bulb temperature is more than 37 OC,” he adds.
What all this means in practice, Schutte notes, is that Driefontein will have to reduce the environmental temperatures at 4 000 m to 28 0C wet bulb or below, if it wants to create a productive and safe working environment.
Interesting to note, he adds, is that platinum mines are much warmer than gold mines, owing to the rock environment in which platinum-group metals reside.
Virgin rock temperatures, which apply to unbroken rock, increase at about 9 OC per kilo- metre depth in the central Witwatersrand region – but nearly double that for the Bushveld Igneous Complex.
This means platinum mines will, considering current cooling technology, have much more difficulty to reach the depths of gold mines.
However, it is not impossible.
South African researchers are continuously developing technologies to enable deep-level mining, having been the first country to dig this deep into the earth.
The country’s Chamber of Mines conducted a study into heat tolerance among mineworkers in gold mines as far back as the 1930s.
A more recent CSIR project called Deepmine probed the technology necessary to drop down as deep as 5 km in local gold mines.
It concluded that these depths are not impossible, but that the gold price will have to justify the cost.
Goodlace says the break-even point of the Driefontein drop-down project is R86 000/oz, but adds that growing project costs will see this increase – which means Gold Fields will only continue to go deeper if the gold price holds steady, or rises from current levels.
After all, nobody’s going to dig 4 000 m into the earth’s belly for the sheer fun of it. Shareholders demand a profitable company.
A complicated dig
There are many things to consider, says Goodlace, but in the end, pushing down to 4 km is about two fundamental things: cooling and sound rock engineering.
“We know the rock strength is such that we can go to 4 000 m. We’re at 3 500 m, so we’re nearly there anyway.
“The key is to ensure we reduce the stress of the surrounding environment. “In essence, we need to simulate shallower mining conditions.”
At three-and-a-half kilometres deep, the natural pressure on the rock is about 9 500 t/m2. If you start mining, the pressure on the remaining rock can double or triple.
This can lead to fatal rockbursts if not handled expertly.
“Mine design is key as you go down to 4 000 m. We have to take a close look at the way we design our system of stopes and haulage, ensuring we leave the neccesary support in place to carry the rock,” says Goodlace.
Another issue to consider when digging deeper is travelling time to the work face.
It’s impossible to reach 4 000 m in a single drop down a mine shaft.
At 3 000 m down, the rope of the cage carrying workers down the mine weighs 70 t – this for a cage that has a capacity of 10 t. It simply becomes too heavy to reach any deeper.
So, gold mines typically reach 3 000 m and below using a multiple shaft system.
At TauTona, current travelling time to the work face is an average of 1,5 hours.
This is set to increase to two hours as the mine goes deeper, which means only 4,5 hours to 5 hours out of a nine-hour shift will be spent working.
A possible solution to the problem is developing linear motor systems which do not make use of a rope – but this is costly technology, not yet fully developed.
So, what’s next?
The good news for those considering deeper-level mining is that one would only suffer decompression sickness at 6 000 m underground.
Nitrogen narcosis (the bends, which scuba divers should be familiar with), and oxygen toxicity (too much oxygen in the air is lethal) set in at 16 000 m and 22 000 m respectively.
The bad news is that the difference in pressure will aready cause your ears to ache at a few hundred metres (similar to when you take off in a plane) – not to mention acute toothache as cavities, which contain gas, become extremely painful with changes in ambient pressure.
Worse news is that the rock temperature at 5 000 m is around 70 0C.
Consider the cost of countering this. If traditional methods are used, vast amounts of water will have to be pumped to and from the surface to keep the mine cool.
Electricity costs will soar. Travelling times will be more than the actual time spent working. And what do we really know about the earth 5 km down?
“Mining beyond 4 000 m, to 5 000 m, is a bit of a push,” says Goodlace.
“No-one has ever operated at that level. It is unknown territory.”
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